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This summer, an electrical power auction in Chile attracted successful bids by wind generators willing to provide electricity at $0.04 per kilowatt hour and solar generators at $0.03 per kwh, easily beating fossil-fuel (1) . That success reflectsdramatic cost reductions over the last six years, with the cost of solar power falling about 70% and wind-power costs down more than 30%. Further reductions are (2) .
Of course, the sun doesn’t always shine, and the wind doesn’t always blow, but intermittency problems are increasingly (3) as the cost of battery and other energy storage falls, and as smart meters and control systems make it possible to shift the timing of some electricity demand. It is now certain that, within 20 years, many countries could get most of their electricity from renewable sources at an easily (4) price.To be sure, solar and wind farms require large land areas. But at the global level, there is (5) of space.
Solar energy reaching Earth totals more than 5,000 times today’s human consumption. Demand will likely double if the world population grows (as United Nations forecasts suggest) from 7.2 billion today to 11 billion by 2100, and if all 11 billion people (6) standards of living now enjoyed only in developed economies. And today’s solar panels can turn only about 20% of solar energy into electricity (though that ratio will increase over time). But even allowing for these factors, estimated space requirements for solar energy sufficient to power the entire world are (7) trivial, at 0.5-1% of global land area.For individual countries however, the challenges vary greatly, reflecting dramatic differences in population density. Chile has 24 people per square kilometer, the United States 35, and India 441 – a figure likely to rise to around 570 by 2050 – while Bangladesh’s is already above 1,200. Uganda’s population density today is 195 per square kilometer, but could grow to around 1,000 by 2100. China’s level will remain (8) , at a moderate 145 people per square kilometer, with its densely populated coastal regions offset by large expanses of (9) and mountains to the west.
Land allocated to wind power is not lost to agricultural production, because crops can be grown and animals grazed between the turbines. But higher population density makes it more difficult and expensive to rely on renewables (10) . If South Korea, with a population density of 517, tried to meet all its energy needs with wind power, it would have to cover its entire land area with wind farms.
- 1) supporter
2) backer
3) assistant
4) colleague
5) competitorsAnswer – 5)
Explanation : competitors - 1) inevitable
2) doubtful
3) escapable
4) fortuitous
5) preventableAnswer – 1)
Explanation : inevitable - 1) mystifying
2) scrutiny
3) inscrutable
4) solvable
5) inconceivableAnswer – 4)
Explanation : solvable - 1) immoderate
2) inordinate
3) affordable
4) invaluable
5) lavishAnswer – 3)
Explanation : affordable - 1) corresponding
2) plenty
3) scarcity
4) profound
5) correlativeAnswer – 2)
Explanation : plenty - 1) attain
2) abandon
3) fragile
4) amend
5) definedAnswer – 1)
Explanation : attain - 1) denunciation
2) deterrent
3) discouragement
4) reassuringly
5) derisionAnswer – 4)
Explanation : reassuringly - 1) inconstant
2) opaque
3) stable
4) shaky
5) wobblyAnswer – 3)
Explanation : stable - 1) productive
2) curtail
3) fertile
4) cultivated
5) desertAnswer – 5)
Explanation : desert - 1) similar
2) alone
3) single
4) unique
5) differentAnswer – 2)
Explanation : alone
